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  • Albumin is the major carrier of free fatty acids

    2021-11-29

    Albumin is the major carrier of free fatty acids (FFAs) in plasma [59], and harbours seven binding sites that are common to FFAs with a range of chain-lengths (C10-C18) across its three domains (Fig. 1a) [60,61]. In vitro, saturated, mono- and poly-unsaturated FFAs, with chain lengths ranging from C6 to C24, can be bound [62]. FFA affinities of albumins from different species are similar, although the effects of FFA binding on protein properties may vary, and drawing conclusions for an albumin from one particular mammalian species using data for another has been discouraged [62]. Binding constants are chain-length dependent (KD ≈ 1.5–35 nM for the strongest sites), with C18:1 (oleic acid) displaying the highest affinity [62,63]. Under normal physiological conditions, oleic ambroxol hydrochloride is the most abundant ambroxol hydrochloride albumin-bound FFA in vivo, followed by palmitate (C16), linoleate (C18:2) and stearate (C18) [59], all of which also bind with affinities in the low to mid nanomolar range [[62], [63], [64]]. FFA-binding sites fall into at least three affinity categories [57,65]. FA2, 4 and 5 are the primary high-affinity sites, followed by the medium-strength sites FA1 and 3, and then FA6 and 7, the weakest sites that are common to most chain-lengths and detectable by X-ray crystallography [60,66] (Fig. 1a). Correlation of affinity with location was achieved by combining X-ray crystallography, site-directed mutagenesis, and 13C NMR spectroscopy [65]. The latter studies employed palmitate labelled with 13C at the carboxyl carbon, an approach that had previously been developed for a range of FFAs (C8-C18) binding to BSA [[67], [68], [69], [70]]. The 13C NMR methodology also allowed deducing that at least four sites on BSA involved the formation of ion-pair interactions with arginine or lysine residues, and indeed, their formation was confirmed by X-ray crystallography [60]. All three high-affinity sites are fairly enclosed and accommodate FFAs in extended conformations. The carboxylate headgroups form salt bridges with arginines or lysines, with further stabilisation from hydrogen bonds from tyrosines or serines. Sites FA1 and 3 also involve ion pairing with arginines, but are overall more accessible, and tend to bind FFAs in “curled” conformations. Sites FA6 and 7 are the most surface-exposed sites, and do not involve any ionic interactions. Under basal physiological conditions albumin typically carries 0.1–2 molar equivalents (mol. equiv.) of FFA. When levels of FFAs are elevated, such as during intense exercise, fasting or pathological conditions such as diabetes, albumin can bind in excess of 6 mol. equiv. of FFA [59]. Interestingly, increased concentrations of non-albumin bound FFAs are known to enhance insulin secretion and reduce growth hormone levels [71]. Additionally, glucose can impair FFA binding to albumin, which has been implicated in the progression of type 2 diabetes [65,72]. It is thus clear that albumin is a critical component of energy-metabolism related networks. In 3 Albumin enables crosstalk between zinc and fatty acids, 4 Implications of plasma zinc and fatty acid interplay, we will outline how plasma FFA levels directly, via albumin, may affect zinc speciation and distribution. Thus, the role of albumin goes far beyond acting as a mere carrier of zinc and FFAs, but mediates their crosstalk.
    Albumin enables crosstalk between zinc and fatty acids The binding of Zn2+ and FFAs to serum albumin is not independent from one another, but linked by allostery [32,55,56]. This is due to the fact that the high-affinity sites A (for Zn2+) and FA2 (for FFAs) both lie at the interface between domains I and II, and require interactions with residues from both domains. Crucially, Zn-site A is only available in FFA-free albumin [36], but is disrupted when an FFA molecule occupies site FA2 [32,33], because this binding event requires significant changes to the domain I/II interface. FA2 is formed by two half-pockets, one of which is located in sub-domain IA, and the other in sub-domain IIA. The carboxylate headgroup interacts with the positively charged guanidinium group of an arginine (Arg257) at the bottom of the pocket in sub-domain IIA. This electrostatic and hydrogen bonding interaction provides a significant amount of binding strength, but the domain IA sub-pocket must be lined up for complete accommodation of an FFA molecule. For zinc site A, this has the effect of a ‘spring-lock’ mechanism, in which coordination from domain I (His67) and domain II (His247 and Asp249) is disengaged, causing the release of Zn2+ from site A [48] (Fig. 2). This is only the case for FFAs with ten or more carbon atoms; the C8 FFA octanoate, if bound to the domain IIA sub-pocket, is too short to elicit the allosteric switch required for crosstalk between FFA and Zn2+ [60], although it still disturbs Cd2+ binding to site A, as studied by 111Cd-NMR [12].